Metaphors in design: an analysis of how we represent design expertise.

Design and design expertise are often argued about and rarely agreed upon by the design community, which is a result of their multifaceted nature and existing underlying assumptions, theoretical anomalies and fragmented knowledge in the field. Lakoff and Johnson (1980) suggest that metaphors structure our perceptions and understanding. Metaphors affect the way we categorise experiences and organise our ideas (ibid). Based on this argument , the paper investigates the visual and cognitive metaphors related to design, in particular, design expertise (DE), to address how these metaphors shape our understanding of DE. It examines how DE is represented through the use of metaphors and explores the use of metaphors as a tool to recognise, share and acquire expertise. This paper examines several metaphors, which are identified mainly through reviewing the literature on design knowledge and skills and existing interviews conducted with designers. The metaphors are analysed in a framework that identifies the linguistic roots, associated meanings, underlying theories and their possible impacts on the design discipline. The analysis of these metaphors reveals characteristics, strengths and limits of how we understand and describe DE. This analysis and discussion will contribute to strengthen an individual's comprehension and positioning on design expertise. It will also input towards how we communicate DE, and how we exchange knowledge, ideas, experiences and skills within the design and business communities, who often do not share the same language and mindset

Are design-led innovation approaches applicable to SMEs?

This study analyses the design discourse and approaches in order to identify whether design-led innovation approaches are applicable to SMEs. It discusses the number of concepts that are widely used in design including design-driven innovation, design thinking and user-centred design to identify to what extent these approaches are derived from the findings about SMEs, take SMEs characteristics into consideration or meet SMEs specific needs. To explore SMEs characteristics and design and innovation, not only literature but also a series of interview conducted with SMEs (n=8) and designers (n=9) were consulted. To reflect design innovation discourse, the core literature on design innovation and a number of audio-visual materials that are publicly available were also analysed. It has been found that most of the innovation approaches are exemplified through large enterprises and multi-nationals. Findings indicate that several design innovation concepts encourage businesses to understand their users who can provide valuable insights informing the design process. However, SMEs often have close relationships with their customers, and they already integrate these insights to their innovation processes. Note that SMEs do not incorporate such information into idea generation process systematically. Most of the knowledge within the company is tacit. Thus, design innovation should focus on articulation of this knowledge and integrating into the innovation process. A barrier to innovation is SMEs avoid experimenting due to the risks involved. Rapid prototyping emphasised by design thinking provides a low-cost opportunity to explore whether the new ideas will meet the needs and requirements and address some of the uncertainties involved. Since it is cheap and quick, it is relatively a safe way to address the uncertainty of innovation. Therefore, this aspect of design thinking is applicable to SMEs innovation processes

Effective approaches for innovation support for SMEs.

Providing appropriate innovation support to small to medium sized enterprises (SMEs) is an on-going challenge. Governments offer a range of initiatives from advice, to research and development grants; however, the underlying methodological frameworks for these interventions are often unclear. Universities have an increasing role to play in providing an understanding of the learning frameworks that surround innovation support and by providing design-led interventions that follow a design thinking approach. This paper considers the ways in which innovation knowledge can be transferred to SMEs based on a constructivist model of knowledge development. The development of Communities of Practice that support innovation making use of IT systems is also explored. Observations are made on the most effective ways of providing support for SMEs applying an experiential learning model, based on the authors experience of directing and working within the Centre for Design & Innovation (c4di) at the Robert Gordon University Aberdeen

Learning arts organisations: innovation through a poetics of relation.

Arts organisations have had to reimagine their ways of working, as a result of the Covid-19 pandemic. The pandemic has severely challenged the venue-based sectors and exposed the fragility of the existing business model of the ‘receiving house'. We use a specific example to address the following question: In what sense can artists lead organisational innovation, learning and change? We analyse Riffing the Archive: Building a Relation project by MARIE ANTOINETTE (MA), an artist duo from Portugal, and their collaboration with the Barn, a multi-art centre in Banchory, Scotland, during the coronavirus pandemic in 2021. Édouard Glissant, Martinique-born poet and philosopher, underpins both MA’s practice and our analysis. We draw on the key concepts of his relational philosophy, including archipelago, opacity, and disaffiliation, to clarify how MA work, what they have offered the Barn and can offer to other art organisations seeking innovation and organisational learning. MA’s nuanced approach, informed by Glissant, reconfigures the relationship between artist and art organisation, challenges existing assumptions through discontinuous and new thinking while building a non-confrontational relationship with the Barn. It contributes to both organisational studies and arts research by highlighting the significance of MA’s approach to organisational innovation

Between contested opaque territories and spontaneous reappropriation: divided Nicosia

This paper discusses the concepts of conflict and border in relation to place and identity reflecting on narratives and meanings of dividing urban and civil borders. It takes the divided Greek and Turkish society living in Nicosia as a case study. The significance of the wall, as an explicit expression of division, is discussed but also overturned by looking at its closure and its permeability when Nicosia’s sealed borders opened again for everyday crossing. The inquiry speculates an alternative path informed by Glissant’s concept of Opacity, Agamben and Nancy’s non-essentialist approaches non-community to look at entangled deep-rooted ethnic divisions and fragments of shared cultures. To inform urban epistemology, two bottom-up examples are analysed using De Certeau’s concepts of everyday life: Home for Cooperation, which is a neutral space in the buffer zone for unified collectively and Occupy Buffer-zone Movement, which has occupied a non-place and transformed it into a public square through grassroots activism. The paper highlights that in order to draw a feasible future of Cyprus, an anti-essentialist acceptance of the multiple and eclectic origins of the context is needed. In this sense, the tangible and intangible meaning of division requires a shift of meaning, from delimitation, classification, separation to a porous element of balance and calibration. The top-down urban models and concept of inclusiveness have been shaken by the temporal civic grassroots communities, and this demonstrates that collective participation fosters the reappropriation of public space, overturning the perception and the experience of the border of differences. This contributes to theorizing a critical and reflective, rather than idealistic, practice of participation in urban design.Este artículo analiza los conceptos de conflicto y frontera en relación con el lugar y la identidad, reflexionando sobre las narrativas y los significados de las fronteras urbanas y civiles divididas. Toma como caso de estudio la sociedad griega y turca dividida que vive en Nicosia. El significado del muro, como expresión explícita de la división, se discute, pero también se revierte, al observar su cierre y su permeabilidad cuando las fronteras selladas de Nicosia se abrieron de nuevo para el cruce cotidiano. La investigación especula con un camino alternativo basado en el concepto de opacidad de Glissant y en los enfoques no esencialistas de Agamben y Nancy, la no comunidad, para examinar las divisiones étnicas profundamente arraigadas y los fragmentos de culturas compartidas. Para fundamentar la epistemología urbana, se analizan dos ejemplos ascendentes utilizando los conceptos de vida cotidiana de De Certeau: el Hogar para la Cooperación, que es un espacio neutro en la zona de amortiguación para unificar colectivamente, y el Movimiento Occupy Buffer-zone, que ha ocupado un no-lugar y lo ha transformado en una plaza pública mediante el activismo de base. El documento destaca que para dibujar un futuro factible de Chipre es necesario aceptar de forma antiesencialista los orígenes múltiples y eclécticos del contexto. En este sentido, el significado tangible e intangible de la división requiere un cambio de significado, desde la delimitación, la clasificación y la separación hasta un elemento poroso de equilibrio y calibración. Los modelos urbanos de arriba abajo y el concepto de inclusividad se han visto sacudidos por las comunidades cívicas temporales de base, y esto demuestra que la participación colectiva fomenta la reapropiación del espacio público, trastocando la percepción y la experiencia de la frontera de las diferencias. Esto contribuye a teorizar una práctica crítica y reflexiva, más que idealista, de la participación en el diseño urbano.Este texto discute os conceitos de conflito e fronteira em relação ao lugar e identidade, refletindo sobre narrativas e significados da divisão das fronteiras urbanas e civis, tendo como estudo de caso a sociedade grega e turca dividida que vive em Nicósia. O significado do muro, como expressão explícita de divisão, é discutido, mas também superado ao olhar para seu fechamento e sua permeabilidade, a partir do momento em que as fronteiras fechadas de Nicósia se abriram novamente para a travessia diária. A investigação argumenta por um caminho alternativo baseado no conceito de Opacidade de Glissant e nos enfoques não essencialistas de Agamben e Nancy, a não-comunidade, para analisar as divisões étnicas profundamente arraigadas e os fragmentos de culturas compartilhadas. Para fundamentar a epistemologia urbana, utilizando os conceitos da vida cotidiana de De Certeau, dois exemplos bottom-up são analisados: Home for Cooperation, um espaço neutro na zona coletiva de unificação e o Movimento Occupy Buffer-zone, que transformou um não-lugar em praça pública por meio do ativismo de base. O artigo destaca que, para o desenho de um futuro viável em Chipre, é necessária uma aceitação ante essencialista das múltiplas e ecléticas origens do contexto. Neste sentido, o significado tangível e intangível da divisão requer uma mudança –de significado, de delimitação, classificação, separação– para um elemento poroso de equilíbrio e calibração. Os modelos urbanos top-down e a noção de inclusividade foram abalados pela ação temporal de comunidades cívicas, fato que demonstra que a participação coletiva promove a reapropriação do espaço público, alterando a percepção e a experiência da fronteira das diferenças. Isto contribui para teorizar uma prática crítica e reflexiva, ao invés de idealista, de participação no desenho urbano

Evaluating the effectiveness of design support for small and medium sized enterprises in Scotland.

Small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) are the engine of economic growth and job creation. Governments have devoted considerable resources to increase their competitiveness in the market. Several design support programmes (DSPs) have emerged from this investment to promote design as a strategic resource for innovation and business growth. Although existing research indicates that an effective use of design can enhance the business performance, a lack of interest amongst SMEs to work with designers is cited in several studies. Despite the great amount of money, energy and time that has been spent on design support for SMEs, there is still a lack of knowledge about effective delivery and evaluation. This thesis focuses on the problem of finding better ways to assist SMEs with design for economic growth by evaluating the effectiveness of design support for SMEs. This research, therefore, has examined the activities of UK-based DSPs, investigated the expertise of design consultancies and inquired about the self-image of designers in order to expand the knowledge of design support for SMEs. The research applied an interpretive paradigm, where multiple realities are recognised as socially constructed. Data was gathered through interviews with individuals representing DSPs, SMEs, design consultancies and government support agencies assisting SMEs. Observation of business support events and publicly available documents were used as additional sources. A thematic analysis and a systematic metaphor analysis were employed to examine the resulting data. The research has highlighted a number of key issues that are pivotal to the success of design support for SMEs. This PhD research also proposes two explanatory frameworks to contribute to design theory and practice: a seven-step evaluation framework for planning and evaluating the outcomes of DSPs and a re-framing of the generalist-specialist dilemma that can inform the activities of design consultancies and DSPs and can guide designers to improve their expertise

Towards an evolutionary understanding on the success of participatory design.

The notion of `participation, and the democratization of design' is not just a movement for social innovation but it is also a powerful methodology for the innovation of products and services. However, the complicated nature of participatory design may result in the failure of projects. The concept of participatory design is similar to climb mount improbable. Mount improbable is the metaphor developed by Dawkins to support Darwins Theory of Natural Selection [1]. He uses the term mount improbable to explain the development of natural objects or events, and how unlikely it is that these natural phenomena are simply a result of coincidence. The concept of climbing mount improbable could be devised to understand the innovation process in participatory design. How do innovations evolve when using participatory methods? This paper examines the user involvement in participatory design with evolutionary understanding of success of products selection phenomenon either natural or artificial, which is explored through the perspective of design

Is specialist designer an oxymoron?

Jack-of-all-trades, master of none is a figure of speech that suits generalists well. Having special knowledge is usually confused with being an expert. Does it mean that a non-specialist or a generalist is not an expert? Curriculums of many design schools provide a generic design education, which enables designers to work across fields. Maintaining disciplinary boundaries may deepen in-depth knowledge within the field; on the other hand, developing a design curriculum encouraging students to move across disciplines produces designers who are able to work well in collaborative teams or facilitate other domain experts. This study examines the influence of this dichotomy on how we perceive expertise and recognise its value by investigating its roots in design education. Twenty-four semi-structured interviews with individuals representing SMEs and external designers were reflected on to investigate difficulties of communicating design expertise resulting from the specialist generalist dilemma. The results of this paper will inform a designer's job identity, protecting and sharing design territory and providing insights for design education

Understanding experimentation as improvisation in arts research.

Purpose - The purpose of this paper is to address the following questions: in what sense does experimentation as improvisation lead to methodological innovation? What are the implications of artistic experimentation as improvisation for education and learning? Design/methodology/approach - The paper tracks the known concept within research of experimentation with a view to revealing how practice-led research in art works distinctively with experimentation. It proposes experimentation as improvisation drawing on a research project Sounding Drawing 2012 as an example. The paper situates art experimentation as improvisation in art (Cage, 1995) anthropology (Hallam and Ingold, 2007; Bateson, 1989) and the theoretical work of Arnheim (1986) on forms of cognition. Findings - Arts research as improvisation is participatory, relational and performative retaining the research subject in its life context. The artist as researcher starts with open-ended critical questions for which there are no known methods or immediate answer. By setting up boundary conditions from the outset and understanding the situatedness and contingencies of those conditions, the artist as improviser seeks ways of not only avoiding chaos and the arbitrary but also being trapped by what is already known. Originality/value - This approach is important within and beyond the arts because it consciously draws together different forms of cognition - intuition and relational knowledge and also sequential knowledge. It is also significant because it offers a different epistemology in which new knowledge emerges in the relationship between participants in the research taking form in co-creation. These qualities all position improvisation as a research paradigm and a counterpoint to positivism